For centuries Jews had been concentrated in specified areas of many European cities, segregated from the surrounding population. They were often required to wear identifying items such as yellow badges or pointed hats. The Third Reich built upon this religious and antisemitic impulse of European ghettoization, creating a ghetto system based on an eliminative racial ideology. Jews were no longer merely persecuted, terrorized, and denied their civil rights and loss of their ability to earn a living. Now they were to be herded like cattle into overcrowded enclosures typically surrounded by fences, walls and barbed wire, denied access to the basic necessities of life, exploited for their labor, and subject to starvation and disease: all as a preliminary step to what the Nazis considered the solution to the "Jewish problem." The specific form of this solution went through several iterations, from mass emigration to plans to ship Jews to Madagascar or to Siberia. Confining Jews to ghettos began in earnest after Germany invaded Poland in September 1939 and 3 million Jews fell into their laps. Reinhard Heydrich had proposed establishing ghettos near railway lines in large Polish towns, with Jews from the smaller villages as well making up the ghetto population, in the effort to centralize Jews for a presumptive "final solution." Jews would be employed as slave laborers. A counsel of Jewish elders - a Judenrat - would be formed to do the bidding of the German occupation administration, ensuring that initiatives and regulations would be carried out. Jewish "police" were to ensure maximal compliance with Nazi orders, including readying Jews for slave labor or deportation. Conditions were execrable: overcrowding, starvation, disease, and exposure to the elements created high death rates. While this scenario wasn't the much-vaunted Final Solution the Nazis struggled with, it served to contribute to Jewish death without Germans taking full responsibility; indeed, the self-serving Nazi idea that Jews were disease carriers would prove to be a self-fulfilling prophesy by virtue of their living conditions alone. After operation Barbarossa and the invasion of the Soviet Union, millions more Jews came under Nazi control, at which point deportation and extermination of Jews in all German-occupied territory became the most obvious and desirable solution to the Jewish problem. At Hermann Goering's request, Heydrich chaired the conference at the Wannsee villa in the Berlin suburbs in January 1942 to coordinate this decision with other Nazi elite. Adolf Eichmann sat quietly taking notes which would be euphemized and sanitized for public consumption.
--Michael D. Bulmash, K1966
Browse the Bulmash Family Holocaust Collection.
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Receipt for Undelivered Package from Zolynia/Lancut to Dzika Street in Warsaw Ghetto
2019.2.85
Front includes one gray and three green postage stamps of architecture. Back includes two gray postage stamps of architecture, and "Zolynia" stamped three times in purple ink.
Information Provided by Michael D. Bulmash: The package in question arrived in the Warsaw Ghetto but was not delivered. Emanuel Ringelblum’s journal of life in the Warsaw Ghetto records that at the time this package was sent, the Ghetto post office was forbidden to handle foreign mail as well as food packages. Eventually, according to Ringelblum, all mail from outside of the Warsaw Ghetto was forbidden under the pretext of the danger of epidemics. The Nazis believed that Jews were especially susceptible to typhus, which presumably justified confining them to ghettos. Jews, in other words, were not only criminals in the eyes of the Nazis, but they were diseased as well. What commences for the Nazis as an ideology becomes a self-fulfilling prophecy: the conditions created by ghettoizing Jews – typhus, tuberculosis, and starvation (the official daily calorie count for Jews in 1941 was 184) – justify the need to continue to contain the Jews in ghettos. Of course, the ghettos were always a temporary measure, a place to quarter Jews until they could be transported to concentration and forced labor camps.
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Pabianice Ghetto Postcard
2012.1.309
Tan envelope with red printed postcard lines. Handwritten address to A. Sahberg from R. Sahberg. Includes a message written in black ink.
Information Provided by Michael D. Bulmash:
A postcard mailed from Pabianice, stamped Judenrat in Pabiance, a subcamp ten miles southwest of Lodz (Litzmannstadt), from R. Sahberg to A. Sahberg of Detroit, Michigan. It reads: “My dear children, We received your card of April 12. The package arrived also and if possible, send us please coffee and tea. I am very happy that you send the money because I have been ill and need it. I plead with you that you do not forget your old and sick mother. If I receive money for the 5th time I will send you a card. I hope you stay well. Greetings and kisses to all of you. Your mother-sister. We received the second package via Portugal and are awaiting letters from you. Kisses and greetings to Alice and Mes."
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Dr. Ludwig Israel Laszky Cover from Urzedow (Lublin Province) to Dr. V. Kunz in Zurich, Switzerland
2016.1.09
Front: Addressed to 'Dr. (Y) Kuniz', two postage stamps - red '1 ZLOTY' above a green '10'. Back: Handwritten return address of Dr. Lanszky, Censor tape at bottom.
Information Provided by Michael D. Bulmash: According to Grazyna Sawa-Adamska, Dr. Ludwig Laszky and his wife Sara moved from Vienna to Urzedow toward the end of 1941 and he was treating Jewish patients. They were two of approximately 300 Jews murdered by Nazis in Urzedow.
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Postcard from Prisoner in Ghetto in Krynica, Poland
2014.1.139
Front: A white postcard with printed black postcard lines and green stamp. Includes writing in black cursive ink, and red and black hand stamps.Back: Message written in black ink with a black hand stamp.
Information Provided by Michael D. Bulmash:
Censored postcard from Krynica Ghetto in the Krakow district. The Krynica Ghetto was liquidated in 1942.
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Postcard to RELICO in Geneva from Piotrkowice Ghetto in the Radom District
2015.2.122
Front: Tan postcard with black printed text and dotted lines, filled in with black cursive ink. Includes purple hand stamp in upper left corner, long red slash across page, and additional writing in grey and red pencil in upper left. Back: Black printed postcard lines. Includes several stamps, including long red stamp across type, black writing, and a printed address.
Information Provided by Michael D. Bulmash:
RELICO card with General Government franking tied KIELCE 8/3/1941, addressed to RELICO (Committee for Assistance of the Jewish Population Stricken by the War) in Geneva. With boxed "Piotrkowice uber Kielce (Distr. Radom)" alongside with Nazi censor. Acknowledgement of receipt of package. Signed by Chaja Liss.
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Marital Eligibility Document from Ghetto Kanczuga in Poland, Endorsed by Judenrat and Rabbi
2019.2.25
Title underlined twice, stamp in center in purple ink, Star of David stamped in purple, Nazi party postage stamp on left side of document.
Information Provided by Michael D. Bulmash:
Kanczuga was a small shtetl in southeastern Poland with a relatively small Jewish community. The Nazis had established a ghetto with approximately 800 Jews, some of whom were from other nearby villages. The ghetto was liquidated in August 1942.
This document, signed by assistant Rabbi Samuel Szmelke Westreich and Judenrat official Abraham Turm, declares that Malka Schupper is eligible to get married and has no claims or any demands against her. There are handstamps representing the Jewish Community of Kanczuga, a circular stamp for the Judenrat, and another circular stamp for assistant Rabbi Szmelke Westreich. There are signatures by both Abraham Turm and Rabbi Westreich. Malka Schupper (born 2-4-1920) married Rudolf Maurits de Leeuw (born 8-19-1917) from Winterswijk, Netherlands. He perished in an extermination camp in Central Europe on August 31st, 1944. Malka had been deported to Auschwitz where she perished in November 1942. Abraham Turm, a bookkeeper by profession, was murdered in Kanczuga. Samuel Szmelke Westreich from a family of Rabbis, son of Rabbi Josef Westreich, was also murdered in the Holocaust.
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Envelope from Jewish Social Aid Societies, Krakow Ghetto to Buenos Aires, Argentina
2015.2.131
Front: Tan envelope with typewritten address, and printed return addressees. Includes two pasted stamps on right side: one blue stamp depicting a tower, and one green stamp depicting a piazza beneath. Includes black, red, and purple hand stamps, some writing in black ink and pencil, a pasted red and white stamp on bottom left, and white examiner tape with black writing on left side.Back: Includes white examiner tape on right side, several red and black hand stamps, and some writing in pencil.
Information Provided by Michael D. Bulmash:
Registered censored envelope franked General Gouvernement 50 pfg and 60 pfg, tied on printed envelope from Judische Soziale Selbsthilfe (Jewish Social Aid Society) and the Zydowska Samopomoc Spoleczna (Jewish Self-Help Society) in Krakow to Jewish Community of Buenos Ares, Argentina, showing straight line violet cachet "Aufgeliefert durch den Judenrat" (Delivered by the Judenrat). Nazi censor markings alongside. Dated August 20, 1941. The censor held this cover until after the war.
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Broadside Announcing German Round-Up of Jews in Ukraine
2012.1.501
Tan poster with text (possibly in Ukrainian).
Information Provided by Michael D. Bulmash: A printed broadside (Bekanntmachung), posted in Rivne, Ukraine. The broadside announced orders directed to Jews in the local ghetto: ".... Jews must wear a yellow insignia approximately 8 cm. in diameter on the left front and center back of all outer clothing... The (Ghetto) population is required to assemble at 12 noon on Friday, 19 Sept. 1941...." As the German military pushed eastward into the Soviet Union, they were trailed by "Einsatzgruppen," special SS extermination squads whose sole purpose was to round up and execute "political enemies of the state" -- which included 1.4 million Russian Jews. This poster was used in a local effort to identify, label and round up some of these victims.
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Postcard from Litzmanstadt Ghetto to Kutno Ghetto
2015.2.129
Front: Tan postcard with writing in black ink in two different handwritings. The top message has several rows underlined in red pencil.Back: Printed purple postcard lines with writing in black cursive ink. Includes purple censor hand stamp and printed purple stamp of Hitler in profile on upper right.
Information Provided by Michael D. Bulmash: Ghetto to ghetto correspondence on German postcard. Sent to the Judenlager at Kutno, the card is marked with a violet boxed "INHALT UNZULASSIG" meaning that the correspondence is undeliverable due to contents found unacceptable by the censor. Kutno Ghetto in central Poland was formed in June, 1940 when 8,000 Jews were quartered on the grounds of a former sugar factory (Konstancja) surrounded by barbed wire. In March 1942 the ghetto was closed with Jews being transported to the death camp Chelmno or killed in the town itself.
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Invoice from the Der Aelteste der Juden in Litzmannstadt, Signed by Chaim Rumkowski
2014.1.447
Tan letter with typewritten message in German. Printed return address in upper left corner reads, "Der Aelteste der Juden in Litzmannstadt."
Information Provided by Michael D. Bulmash:
Invoice signed by the controversial leader of the Judenrat in LItzmannstadt Chaim Mordechai Rumkowski, whose hope to make the Litzmannstadt Jews into an indispensable workforce for the Nazis would be a deterrent against deportation to death camps. On “Elder of the Jews in Litzmannstadt” stationery, violet handstamp tied to signature. Litzmannstadt was liquidated in August 1944 and Rumkowski himself was deported to Auschwitz where he perished.
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Document Relating to Jurgen Stroop and Rudolf Brandt
2019.2.21
Two holes punched in left side, numbered list near top, "65" written in top right corner, stamp of chart in blue ink.
Information Provided by Michael D. Bulmash:
Document from October 22, 1941, notifying five offices that Himmler has assigned Stroop to the “Volksdeutsche-Mittelstelle” Coordination Center for Ethnic Germans, and will later be assigned to the original mandate in the Caucasus. This document is signed by SS liaison to the Reich Ministry of the Interior, Rudolf Brandt (1909-1948), who would later be executed for his role in assembling - with August Hirt and Wolfram Sievers - a collection of Jewish anatomical specimens chosen for their perceived stereotypically subhuman racial characteristics, from concentration camp inmates murdered for this express purpose. Stroop was the SS Police Leader of Warsaw who was responsible for the savage crushing of the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising in 1943 about which he wrote a book – intended as a souvenir for Himmler originally entitled “The Warsaw Ghetto is no more.” It took Stroop and his army a month of overwhelming firepower to subdue the ghetto fighters who had little in the way of food or ordinance. Indeed, Stroop grudgingly acknowledged surprise at the fighting spirit of the ghetto inhabitants. Brought to trial as a war criminal, he was found guilty and executed - appropriately - in Warsaw.
[Related item: 2019.2.20]
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Litzmannstadt Ghetto Postcard Returned
2012.1.317
Tan postcard with green printed postcard lines. Includes a handwritten address to Jenny Levy from J. Birman. Message handwritten in black ink.
Information Provided by Michael D. Bulmash:
Censored postcard from an inmate at Litzmannstadt (Lodz) Ghetto to Hamburg marked "Zuruck" (returned to sender) probably due to contents. This postcard was sent from S. Birman in Litzmannstadt to Mrs. Jenny Levy, in Hamburg. "My dear Aunt Jenny, your kind card we have received and we were glad you are well. This evening we invited Mrs. Suess, since she is very nervous and her heart is weak... Also Gust? Spiegel and aunt Elma Rosenberg we spoke to. We received both letters from Uncle Arthur. Father and I work G.S.D. (?) and are momentarily very occupied. Kindest greetings and kisses from all of us. Your Werner."
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Postcard from Kolomea Ghetto
2015.2.134
Front: Tan postcard with writing in blue cursive ink, and several lines underlined in pencil.Back: Printed postcard lines in green with writing in blue cursive ink. Includes black, red, and purple hand stamps, damage from a paper clip on the left, and three pasted stamps in green and orange on the upper right.
Information Provided by Michael D. Bulmash:
General Government 12 pfg. postal stationary card with additional 8 pfg. and 10 pfg. stamps. From S. Schein in Kolomea to Alfred Schwarzbaum, a Jewish benefactor who escaped Poland and settled in Lausanne, Switzerland, showing two-line Judenrat Kolomea (German name) handstamp alongside. Message in German. Nazi censor markings. Dated October 11, 1941, one day before the mass murder of Jews in the Szeparowce Forest 5 miles outside of town. Kolomea was an important center of Hassidism. The Judenrat, headed by Mordechai Horowitz, was soon burdened by the arrival of Jewish refugees from Hungary. Approximately 18,000 Jews were herded into the ghetto that was sealed off in March 1942, a holding pen for eventual deportations to the Belzec extermination center.
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Litzmannstadt Ghetto Postcard
2012.1.321
Tan postcard with purple printed postcard lines. Addressed to Alfred Ditrich from M.W. Orzegowski with message written in green ink.
Information Provided by Michael D. Bulmash: Card sent to Breslau rejected for being unclean due to ink smear on right edge. Card not postmarked. Stamped "Zuruck" meaning return. Address is Mr. Engineer Alfred Ditrich Breslau Sadowa st 60. Note: red marking means dirty or unclear. Return address: MW Orzegowski Litzmannstadt Cranach street 26. "My dear Mr. Engineer, I feel much better and my health is improved. Maybe it will be possible for me to stay in bed at home for a few days in order to get some unbroken rest. leave enough money. In spite of the fact that I could request sick leave, a few days of complete rest would be wonderful. My uncle has lots of work in the event you write to him. Please sympathize with him, he likes that so very much. I don't care for that myself as I don't like myself that much -- One has to have understanding for older gentlemen. I must finish now in order to mail the card today -- I send greetings also to your wife and son. Please let me hear from you soon -- I wish you good health for the future. Greetings to you. Yours, MW Orzegowski. Litzmannstadt. 11 November 1941."
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Announcement of Lvov (Lemberg) Ghetto
2012.1.579
Tan broadside titled, "Aufruf." Includes text in German.
Information Provided by Michael D. Bulmash:
Dr. Abraham Rothfeld, who wrote and signed this announcement, was the head of the Judenrat, or Jewish council, taking the place of Dr. Joseph Parnes whom the Nazis killed because of his refusal to submit Jews for slave labor at the Janowska labor camp. Lvov had the third largest Jewish population in Poland on the eve of World War II. It had been absorbed into the General Government after the Non-Aggression Treaty between the USSR and Germany was signed.
A ghetto was established for Jews in 1941. Germans ordered that the Jews be moved into it by December 25, 1941. Living conditions were poor: the lack of heat, poor sanitary conditions, and hunger contributed to many Jews dying of typhus. Selections occurred almost immediately. The sick and elderly were murdered even before they entered the ghetto. Many Jews were transported to the Aktion Reinhard extermination camp Belzec where they were instantly murdered (Aktion Reinhard camps were named after Reinhard Heydrich who died after an assassination attempt). Many Jews deemed less expendable were forced to work at the Janowska labor camp. In August 1942 the so-called Great Aktion occurred and approximately 50,000 more Jews perished at Belzec. These Aktions continued and included shootings and hangings. Members of the Judenrat were not spared and were hanged in public.
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Litzmannstadt Ghetto Postcard
2012.1.318
Tan postcard with purple printed postcard lines. Addressed in pencil to Saul Ettenger from L Davidson. Includes message written in pencil.
Information Provided by Michael D. Bulmash: Postcard to Mr. Saul Ettenger. Krakow - Wenger Str. 10-15 from L. Davidson.Litzmannstadt. Translation: "Dear ones -- I am now here and would like to have some information from you. For the last three weeks I have been without any information from Helene and also from Leo and family. I arrived here three weeks ago and wrote at once to Hujare. I am here without money and he should go at once to Leo. You understand me -- do you not? She should also ask Wese for 35 MK and mail it to me. How are you and please answer at once. My address is on the face of the card. Hearty greetings from your sister."
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Theresienstadt Ghetto Package Receipt
2016.1.29
Front: “Einlieferungsschen” in bold black near top, postage stamp at bottom adhered sideways; Back: “Beathlenswerle Regeln” in bold at top.
Information Provided by Michael D. Bulmash: Receipt for package sent from Vienna to an inmate of the Theresienstadt/Terezin Ghetto/Concentration camp. Dr. Gertrude Scheuer was sent to Auschwitz on January 29, 1943 where she subsequently perished. This was unknowingly sent after she had already been transported and died.
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Litzmannstadt Ghetto Postcard
2012.1.326
Tan postcard with purple printed postcard lines. Includes message written in black ink.
Information Provided by Michael D. Bulmash: Litzmannstadt prisoner postcard from Manfred Israel Bing to the Welfare Department Transport Dusseldorf-Rhein. Retired lieutenant of the Reserve. Regarding: "Transferring my social security for the month of November and December 1941. I am very much in need of it since I am not able to work. This was substantiated by the agency at (?) and certainly the case is the same here. I was severely wounded during the war. I beg you to prove my worthiness and help me. Manfred Israel Bing. no. A01052." The postcard was never sent as attested to by the large purple censor mark "Zuruck" meaning "returned." No explanation is given.
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Postcard to Judenrat at Litzmannstadt (Lodz) Ghetto
2012.1.320
Tan postcard with purple printed postcard lines. Includes pencil-written address to "An Eltesten der Juden en Litzmannstadt" [The Eldest of the Jews in Litzmannstadt" from E. Finkelstein. Includes green tape and a message written in pencil.
Information Provided by Michael D. Bulmash:
A Jew working at a labor camp (Reppen) sends certified card to the Judenrat to request that his paycheck be sent to F. Morozrecka. The red ink handstamp states "free of additional charge." Postmarked Reppen. Frankfurt. "... E. Finkelstein requests that his paycheck be sent to Fela Morozrecka, Frany st. 38." The blue stamp affixed could mean registration for the workplace 1941. Addressed to Eldest of the Jews.
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Postcard from Litzmannstadt (Lodz) Ghetto with Rejection Stamp: Writer’s Descriptions Too Explicit
2012.1.325
Tan postcard with purple printed postcard lines. Addressed to Anni Tinter from Anna Sara Oppenheim. Includes message written in black ink with several red censor markings.
Information Provided by Michael D. Bulmash:
A postcard to the Welfare Office in Vienna from an elderly German Jew residing in an old age home. Red rejection stamp "Deutlichh Scheren" translates as "too distinct writing." Contents too explicit in describing ghetto's crowded conditions, scarcity and expense of food, and in requesting money. Return address: Anna Sara Oppenheim. Marschin II (old age home in the ghetto). Ghetto Litzmannstadt Address: Miss Ammi Tintner, Welfare office - Vienna. Translation: "Dear Miss Tintner, It is so very difficult for me to belabor dear people like you with my problems -- but certain things that are on my mind bother me and I am coming to you. I remember only too well how helpful you always were and protected us against enemies. Many others are in great fear and suffer a great deal but I can not write about that. I hope that you can read my writing. I wrote to my sister 6 times and I am wondering if they had to leave Vienna also. I hope that they did not suffer and I prayed for God's protection. For the past four weeks I am living in an "old age home" in a barack with many people cramped together in a small space. The nurses provided for us as best they can. Things are very scarce and very expensive. You would not recognize me. I am so undernourished -- my body has suffered a lot with pain - rheumatism, arthritis and I can hardly walk any more and I am very [illegible]. I do not have any money and need so many things like eye drops. It would be wonderful if you could send me some money so that I could buy some Fat Margarine. The kindness shown me by the mission and the very kind Pastor Lingor is in my memory. Greetings to all and if possible give me a report on my sister's situation. With hearty greetings I remain as your grateful friend, A. Oppenheim."
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Cover from D. Siegelbaum in Dabrowa Ghetto to a Relative in Hungary
2019.2.87
Envelope with blue postage stamp of Hitler in top right corner, "271082" stamped in green in bottom right corner, addressed to "Siegelbaum" on front and back.
Information Provided by Michael D. Bulmash:
Dabrowa Górnicza was occupied by the German army in early September 1939. All Jews living there - approximately 5,000 - were gathered into the Judische Kultusgemeinde (Jewish Community) prior to the establishment of the Dabrowa ghetto the following year. A Judenrat was established, and many of the Jewish businesses were aryanized. Young Jews were deployed for forced labor in Germany as well as in war-related industries. Jews not selected for work were deported to Auschwitz. At the end of the war only 300 Jews from Dabrowa survived.
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Litzmannstadt Ghetto Postcard
2012.1.319
Tan postcard with purple printed postcard lines. Addressed in blue ink to "An der Aeldesten der Juden in Litzmannstadt" [The Eldest of the Jews in Litzmannstadt] from Willi Kuperberg. Includes a message written in blue ink.
Information Provided by Michael D. Bulmash:
A forced laborer from Camp Granew requests a change of payee for money sent to someone in Litzmannstadt. Translation: "To the oldest Jew in Litzmannstadt. I am the underground construction worker Willi Kuperberg. I wrote a postcard on 26 Dec 1941, requesting that Mrs. Jochovich be paid; but I am sorry that I have to hold it back. I am requesting that instead Mrs. Davo be paid out. Please excuse me that I changed my mind. Respectfully, Underground Construction worker, Willy Kuperberg Camp Grunow."
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Arrest Warrant from Vilna Ghetto
2015.2.111
Front: Tan paper with writing in pencil and blue ink, pink stamps in upper lefthand and lower righthand corners, and a pencil signature. Back: Blue cursive writing.
Information Provided by Michael D. Bulmash: One of four arrest warrants bearing Vilna (Vilnius: Lithuanian) Ghetto handstamp in violet and red. Of the more than 60,000 Jews living in Vilnius before the German occupation, 21,000 were murdered over the course of the summer of 1941 by German troops, Einsatzgruppen A, and their Lithuanian collaborators. The effort was to establish a ghetto to imprison all Jews of Vilna and suburbs in the old Jewish quarter of the city. The area was split into two Ghettos, referred to as the Large and Small Ghettos, to implement the process of dehumanization, exploitation of the population for slave labor, and systematic extermination of all the Jewish residents. As in other ghettos created by the Nazis, conditions were intentionally overcrowded and unsanitary, with disease, hunger, and daily death as expectable outcomes. The Small Ghetto was liquidated by the end of October 1941, leaving approximately 20,000 Jews remaining in the Large Ghetto. Jacob Gens was appointed head of the Ghetto administration. A former police chief, he set about establishing medical care, cultural and welfare systems for the Ghetto. Like Rumkowski in the Lodz Ghetto, he hoped that if Jews could prove themselves to be a productive workforce for the Nazis, then the ghetto's destruction would be delayed. Germans continued to murder ghetto Jews - typically the elderly and infirm - on a regular basis. Under Himmler's orders, deportations to concentration camps in Poland and slave labor camps began in the summer of 1943, along with mass shootings in the Ponary Forest. At the slave labor camp known as HKP, Wehrmacht Major Karl Plagge was heroically able to shield many of the Jewish workers from murder at the hands of the Nazis. The extraordinary privations notwithstanding, Vilna was known for its sustained cultural and intellectual life. It maintained a substantial library, ran theatrical productions, sports events, magazines, poetry readings, and more. Vilna Ghetto was also known for its underground partisan organization, the FPO, formed in 1942 and headed by Abba Kovner and Josef Glazman and Yitzhak Wittenberg; its motto was "We will not go like sheep to the slaughter," thus attempting to establish a means for Jewish self-defense. Ultimately they pursued a policy of sending members out to join partisan units in the forest.
[Related items: 2015.2.112, 2015.2.113, 2015.2.114]
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Theresienstadt Transport Card
2015.2.115
Front: Tan postcard with writing in black ink, signed from "Mutter." Back: Printed maroon postcard lines with an embellished border, printed stamp in upper right, and writing in black ink. Includes extra writing in blue and red, and a blue, and a blue hand stamp.
Information Provided by Michael D. Bulmash: Prague censored postcard card to Trude Weinstein in Theresienstadt from her mother Berta listing her transport number 161 to Theresienstadt.
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Modliborzyce Ghetto in Lublin District Postcard from Judenrat to RELICO
2015.2.125
Front: Tan postcard with black printed text and dotted lines, filled in with blue cursive ink. Includes a long red line through the card, and other red text, as well as numerical and date hand stamps. Back: Black printed postcard lines and address. Includes long red hand stamp across top of card, purple and black hand stamps, pasted purple stamp of a church on upper right, and several pencil markings.
Information Provided by Michael D. Bulmash:
Censored "RELICO" card from Frieda Gold of the ghetto at Modliborzyce with the cachet of the JUDENRAT in violet to the RELICO Committee acknowledging receipt of parcels. Modliborzyce was a small village in Poland's Lublin district. With the German occupation, the Jewish community swelled to 2000 with refugees arriving from Vienna in 1941. In October 1942 the ghetto was liquidated with the Jews being deported to Belzec death camp. RELICO was an organization established in September 1939 by Dr. Abraham Silberschein to provide assistance to Jewish refugees and to help search for missing relatives.