The Holocaust (1933-45) refers to Nazi Germany’s deliberate, progressive persecution and systematic murder of the Jews of Europe. Nazi anti-Semitism superseded traditional Judeo-Christian religious conflict by uniting a racial ideology with social Darwinism: the Jew was seen as subhuman, a disease threatening the body politic, and the cause of Germany’s problems—its economic woes, its defeat in World War I, its cultural degeneracy—and thus must be eradicated. As soon as Hitler came to power in 1933, the Nazis commenced the organized persecution of the Jews. Jewish books were burned, and businesses boycotted. Jews were excluded from professions, public life, and from the arts. The Nuremberg laws of 1935 identified and defined a Jew based on immutable racial characteristics and lineage, less so his religion. Jews were stripped of their civil rights as German citizens. More than 120 decrees and ordinances were enacted subsequent to the Nuremberg laws. In 1938, Kristallnacht occurred, the planned pogrom that led to the destruction of synagogues, mass arrests, and the looting of Jewish businesses. Jews were murdered, and many more were interned in concentration camps that had been established for political prisoners. Jewish property was registered, confiscated, and ultimately aryanized. Life in Nazi Germany was sufficiently intolerable that more than to 200,000 Jews emigrated. Hitler’s goal of making Germany “Judenrein” was proving successful.
With the Nazi’s ascension to power, other groups were imperiled as well, vulnerable to discriminatory treatment, persecution and death; for example, the Roma and Sinti, the developmentally and physically disabled, homosexuals, and political and social "undesirables". Slavic people were considered Untermenschen, fit only for servitude in the new and expanded Reich. During this period of time, in direct contravention of the Treaty of Versailles, Germany was also secretly building its military and preparing for an eventual war. Yet it was the Nazi’s growing confidence and skill in pruning the Aryan tree of its undesirables that allowed it to perfect the technical apparatus for carrying out mass murder on an industrial scale, with its ultimate goal the “final solution to the Jewish question”.
--Michael D. Bulmash, K1966
Browse the Bulmash Family Holocaust Collection.
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“Kolner Hof” Anti-Semitic Postcard
2015.2.21
Front: White postcard with an illustration of the hotel on top. Includes a boot coming out of the hotel and kicking a cariacturized Jewish man in pinstripe pants out onto the street, his bag opening and his belongings falling out in the process. In the lower lefthand corner is an illustration of a statue. A message is written in messy handwriting next to the statue, and across the rest of the postcard. Back: Green postcard lines filled in with an address in pencil. Green 5 cent stamp in upper right corner, with a black Frankfurt circular handstamp over it. Another black hand stamp in lower left corner. The Frankfurt Hotel "Kölner Hof" barred Jews since 1895 and advertised itself as the "only Jew-free hotel" in the city.
Information Provided by Michael D. Bulmash: The Frankfurt Hotel "Kölner Hof" barred Jews since 1895 and advertised itself as the "only Jew-free hotel" in the city. The owner of Kölner Hof, Hermann Laass, took great pride in the fact that Jews were excluded. A variety of anti-Semitic media were used: posters, postcards, and advertisements in anti-Semtiic newspapers. Laass was a member of a number of anti-Semtiic organizations, culminating in his joining the NSDAP, the Nazi Party in 1933.
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German Jewish Anti-Semitic Postcard
2012.1.434
Postcard with illustration of a bearded Jewish man and a bug titled, "Gruss aus russisch Polen." Includes a message written in purple pencil.
Information Provided by Michael D. Bulmash: This postcard was published in Germany. It attempted to portray a Russian Jew as a Russian Polish louse.
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Photo Postcard of Cardinal Faulhaber Presiding Over a Mass for Soldiers of the Bavarian Cavalry Division in World War I
2019.2.218
Postcard with black and white image of a congregation, features a Cardinal in religious dress standing in front of a large group of soldiers. Back includes address written to “Kuhn Ludwig.”
Information Provided by Michael D. Bulmash: Handwritten dedication February 11, 1918 by Ludwig Kuhn, Catholic Division Priest.
Cardinal Faulhaber was a controversial figure who both publicly decried Nazi policies, yet recognized the Nazi government as legitimate and compelled loyalty from his clergy to the Nazi regime. While Faulhaber could speak and write against Nazi racism, and even anti-Semitism, he did not, it is claimed, go far enough in denouncing Nazi measures taken against Jews.
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Envelope Addressed To Max Amann
2014.1.69
Back: Greenish envelope with red circular hand stamp.Front: Printed J.L. Assmann logo with illustration of a Derby camera. Includes a pink postage stamp, black hand stamp, and address written in pink.
Information Provided by Michael D. Bulmash: Max Amann (1891-1957) was a high-ranking Nazi (and personal friend of Hitler) who used his position as president of the Reich Media Chamber and reich Press Leader to enrich himself personally and become the largest newspaper publisher in Germany (and one of the largest in the world). With the power to seize newspapers that did not know the Nazi policy line, he was able to purchase them for very little. Thus, Amann made Nazism very profitable for himself.
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Irene Erdheim, a Jewish Woman from Vienna, Austria
2016.1.04
Formal portrait of female wearing dark jacket with hair pulled back
Information Provided by Michael D. Bulmash: Irene Erdheim, who had worked at the German post office in Vienna, was able to leave Vienna as a Jewish refugee for Palestine by 1940. [Related items: 2016.1.02, 2016.1.03]
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Early Italian Fascist Party Identification Card
2019.2.228
Small identification booklet titled “Partito Nazionale Fascista,” inside missing identification photograph.
Information Provided by Michael D. Bulmash:Membership identification card from 1922. Campobasso. Missing photo.
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Deutschnationale Socialistische Arbeiter Partei
2014.1.3
Front: A grayish-green envelope with a handwritten address, including four postmarked stamps and an adhered white label with red text.Back: Nineteen postmarked red stamps and an address stamped in green.
Information Provided by Michael D. Bulmash: Cover addressed to SAPD, the Socialist Workers' Party of Germany which was a centrist left-wing or Marxist political party, not to be confused with the NSDAP, the right wing Nazi Party under Hitler, which it worked against.
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Deutschnationale Socialistische Arbeiter Partei
2014.1.4
A tan envelope with two blue stamps, two circular postmarks and typed address.
Information Provided by Michael D. Bulmash: Cover addressed to SAPD, the Socialist Workers' Party of Germany which was a centrist left-wing or Marxist political party, not to be confused with the NSDAP, the right wing Nazi Party under Hitler, which it worked against.
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Envelope Addressed to National Socialist Workers Party in Munich
2014.1.2
A pale green envelope with illegible postmark, a green stamp, and type.
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Adolf Hitler Spricht Postcard Set
2014.1.25a-g
Adolf Hitler Spricht: 6 photographische Momente während einer Rede Adolf HItler's aufgenommen' [Adolf Hitler speaks: Six photographic moments during an Adolf Hitler speech included]; Photographed by Heinrich Hoffmann; with two protective cover sleeves; one with window. Note: Five of six postcards included in collection.
Information Provided by Michael D. Bulmash: Early Heinrich Hoffmann real photo postcards of Hitler practicing dramatic gestures to heighten the impact of his speeches on his audiences. Like any actor, Hitler knew that perfecting his talent to mesmerize his audiences required that he appear natural and unrehearsed
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Letter from Hermann Goring
2012.1.380
Stationery with embossed eagle, titled, "Der Reichsmaschall des Grofzdeutschen Reiches." Includes a typewritten message and pink signature.
Information Provided by Michael D. Bulmash: Hermann Goring (1893-1946) was a German politician who began his career as an ace in World War I. He rose to become Hitler's right-hand man and head of the Luftwaffe, and after his capture, he committed suicide on the eve of his execution. TLS on his blind-embossed Reichsmarshall's letterhead, "Headquarters," to Kurt Daluege (1897-1946), the chief of security police in SD central office who succeeded Heydrich as Deputy protector of Bohemia and Moravia. Daluege was hanged by the Czechs in 1946. Goring acknowledges Daluege's wishes for the season and reciprocates.
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Letter from Alfred Rosenberg
2012.1.381
Typewritten message on tan paper with signature in pencil.
Information Provided by Michael D. Bulmash: Alfred Rosenberg (1893-1946) was a Nazi leader considered the ideologist of Nazism. He was Reichsminister of the eastern territories and executed at Nuremburg. This letter was written in Munich to Mr. Rudiger in the Artam Program. The Artam Program encouraged German youth to volunteer for agricultural work while indoctrinating them in Nazi beliefs. In part "Your letter from February 22 disappointed me because I had no idea of your plan. As you know, it was originally taken in view, to hold just for the Pentecost with the Fighting Alliance for German culture and other officers together with a youth and culture. Whether in Goslar or elsewhere, we from Weimar have determined that's not likely to continue. Now I heard, for the first time, that you want to organize an overall meeting in Gauernitz on the Elba... I don't know the extent of your work already... if it is at all possible. The special features of the meeting for the rescue of the East Germans, even underlined, are thus unable to be effected..." In 1929, Rosenberg formed the Militant League for German Culture to propagate Nazi ideas.
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Flier For Nazi Party Meeting
2014.1.7
An orange flier with bold German text and two Swastikas.
Information Provided by Michael D. Bulmash: The flyers (2014.1.7-.9) claim that the Nazis are fighting capitalism, and attack Social Democrats for protecting capitalists and harming workers.
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Flier for Nazi Party Meeting
2014.1.8
An orange flier with black printed text.
Information Provided by Michael D. Bulmash: The flyers (2014.1.7-.9) claim that the Nazis are fighting capitalism, and attack Social Democrats for protecting capitalists and harming workers.
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Flier for Nazi Party Meeting
2014.1.9
A green flier with black printed text and a swastika in the lower left.
Information Provided by Michael D. Bulmash: The flyers (2014.1.7-.9) claim that the Nazis are fighting capitalism, and attack Social Democrats for protecting capitalists and harming workers.
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Candidate Adolf Hitler on Election Ballot
2012.1.72
Small election ballet with an X next to Adolf Hitler's name. Titled "Reichspräfidentenwahl."
Information Provided by Michael D. Bulmash: A ballot related to the German presidential election of March 13, 1932. Along with Hitler's name are Thalmann, Winter, Hindenburg, and Duesterberg.
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Elect Hitler Political Flier
2012.1.543
Tan sign with red text. Titled, "Bis zum Weissbluten."
Information Provided by Michael D. Bulmash: Flyer related to elections on July 31, 1932. The sign described the economic crisis of joblessness, corruption, and break down of the middle class and so on in Germany. Translation in part:…”The nation woke up and recognized that Hitler predicted correctly as the nation will discover together, and millions will settle up with the guilty ones and those responsible. And now, the betrayers lie in their fear. They hope that the nation is too stupid to see the swindle. They hope they can distract from 13 years mismanagement. They hope they can shake the belief in Hitler. But it's no use! The nation will unite with the largest German party and settle up with the betrayers and will vote on July 31 for the NSDAP.”
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Letter Involving Christoph Diehm, Richard Hildebrandt and Heinrich Himmler
2012.1.378
Letter on tan "13. S.S. Standarte der N.S.D.A.P." stationery. Includes typewritten message and signature in black ink.
Information Provided by Michael D. Bulmash: A letter on early SS Standarte NSDAP letterhead, signed by Brigadefuhrer Christoph Diehm, SS Obergruppenfuhrer Richard Hildebrandt and initialed by Heinrich Himmler. The front bears a letter from Sturmbannfuhrer Schuster to SS Abschnitt X regarding the transfer of a freemason considered a troublemaker, on ESS Sturmfuhrer Jacob Hauser. On the back, Diehm approvesthe transfer, as does Hildebrandt three days later. On April 29th Himmler initals final approval. Diehm would later command the Kaminski, 29th Waffen SS Grenadier Div., SS Rona, fighting in the east and Warsaw. Hildebrandt headed the Office of Race and Resettlement of the SS and was found guilty of forced abductions, forced resettlements, kidnapping of children, euthenasia and a host of other crimes. He was executed by Poles in 1952.
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Postcard Commemorating Nazi Seizure of Power
2014.1.177
Front: Off-white postcard with an illustration of a Nazi rally near a classical-looking buildling. Includes brown printed postcard lines, an address written in black ink, black hand stamps, and black and orange postage stamps.Back: Message written in black ink.
Information Provided by Michael D. Bulmash: Postcard sent from Dresden, Germany to Akron, Ohio on the first anniversary of Hitler's assumption of power.
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N.S.D.A.P. Member Photograph
2016.1.56
Man in uniform with hat and glasses standing before a Nazi swastika flag. Signature and date written in pencil on mat just below bottom right of photograph.
Information Provided by Michael D. Bulmash: Ominous professional photographer’s image of an unidentified S.A. officer standing before an NSDAP flag, signed and dated 1933 by the photographer.
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Picture Postcard of Aftermath of Reichstag Fire
2020.1.2
Postcard with image of burning building. German text printed below reads "Berlin, Reichstagsgebäude in Flammen"
Information Provided by Michael D. Bulmash:
On January 30, 1933, President of Germany Paul von Hindenburg appointed Adolf Hitler Germany’s chancellor. Hitler, head of the Nazi Party, took the oath of office and convened his cabinet. In less than one month, on February 27, 1933, the German parliament building in Berlin – the Reichstag- was set ablaze. Hitler blamed the Communists for the fire, cynically claiming that this was part of an attempt to overthrow the government. The fire became for Hitler a rationale to seize absolute control of the government, suspending civil liberties and constitutional protections on the news media, free speech, and political assembly, and conducting raids and arrests on offices of political opponents. While a young Dutchman with communist sympathies was tried and eventually executed for the arson, many believed that Hitler and the Nazis had contrived and participated in the arson. On March 23, the Reichstag passed the Enabling Act, giving full powers to Hitler. By the end of the year, all non-Nazi political parties, labor unions and other organizations had ceased to exist. Hindenburg died in 1934, and the German Army sanctioned Hitler’s decision to combine the posts of president and chancellor, thus cementing Hitler’s absolute power over Germany.
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Press Photograph by Heinrich Hoffman of Hitler as Newly Named Chancellor of Germany with his Confederates
2021.1.6
group of eleven men including Chancellor Adolf Hitler sixth from the left. The men are all wearing dark suits with the exception of one man who is wearing a tan trench coat.
Information Provided by Michael D. Bulmash: With the German economy reeling from the Great Depression, the fragile Weimar Republic parliamentary government was collapsing. At this time Hitler and his minions, striving for legitimacy, focused less on antisemitism, and more on the broken system of government. Hitler ran for president against Paul von Hindenburg, the World War I hero. While the Nazis won 37 percent of the seats in the Reichstag, Hitler was not able to secure a majority of votes to become president. Hindenburg emerged narrowly triumphant against Hitler in another round of voting. However, Hitler would ultimately come to power when von Papen and other conservative elites convinced Hindenburg to appoint Hitler chancellor. They believed that while Hitler was an outsider with no experience in government, he could successfully pull together a right-wing coalition of conservatives and nationalists. Importantly, they felt he could be easily manipulated and sidelined, while they could set an agenda that would prevent Germany from sliding toward communism. Hindenburg ultimately relented, and Hitler became chancellor of Germany on January 30, 1933, thus commencing his ascent to power.
The mysterious Reichstag fire of February, 1933-conjectured to have been set by the Nazis themselves- was blamed by them on communists. Hitler wasted no time in exploiting the occasion to persuade the enfeebled Hindenburg to sign the Enabling Act, thus suspending individual and civil liberties, bypassing parliamentary rule, and rationalizing silencing those deemed enemies of the state. The Enabling Act of March, 1933 would lead implacably to the total Nazification of the German state. On the so-called Night of the Long Knives (June 30 to July 2, 1934) Hitler and other Nazi stalwarts executed Ernst Roehm, the leader of the Brown Shirts, and minimally 85 others deemed political enemies. With Hindenburg’s death in August 1934, Hitler consolidated power by merging the presidency and the chancellorship. He was now the Fuhrer, Germany’s dictator.
This press photograph, taken on the afternoon of Hitler’s appointment to Chancellor, shows Ernst Roehm standing directly behind Hitler as “chief of staff of the S.A. Hauptmann Roehm’ (Staabschef der S.A. Hauptmann Roehm).” After the Night of the Long Knife and the execution of Ernst Roehm, all evidence of his affiliation with the Nazi movement was erased, including retouching this photograph. Images published after July 1934 show him missing from this group photograph. A similar effort to erase Roehm from German history occurred with eliminating his appearance in the 1933 Nazi propaganda film Der Sieg des Glaubens.
The caption on the back is partially incorrect: shown in the photo from left to right are: Otto Wagener, Wilhelm Kube, Hanns Kerrl, Joseph Goebbels, Adolf Hitler, Ernst Roehm, Hermann Goering, Walther Darre, Heinrich Himmler, Rudolf Hess, Seated Wilhelm Frick. Press caption attached to the back. Presse-Photo GMBH, Berlin.
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Contract Signed by Heinrich Himmler
2012.1.371
White document titled "Dienstvertrag" (Service Contract). Includes printed and typewritten information. Signed in blue by "H. Himmler" on the right side.
Information Provided by Michael D. Bulmash: Heinrich Himmler (1900-1945) was Hitler's Chief of Gestapo placed in charge of security and responsible for construction and operation of extermination camps. This document a "Dienstvertrag" or "Service Contract" between SS and SS-Sturmbannfuhrer Bruno Gesche, valid until 1951, boldly signed by Himmler and twice by Gesche. The latter would advance to rank of Obersturmbannfuhrer and become member of Hitler's entourage. He served as head of HItler's bodyguard, despite Himmler's desperate attempts to have him removed. Eventually his alcoholism saw him shipped to the eastern front and sent to a punishment battalion.
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Boycott against Jews in Berlin
2012.1.402
A black and white photograph of a man in Nazi uniform standing outside of a store with a sign telling citizens not to shop at Jewish shops.
Information Provided by Michael D. Bulmash: German government inspired boycott of Jewish businesses in April 1933.A member of the SA stands outside of a store (possibly Kaufhaus Nathan Israel) with placards reading "Germans! Defend Yourselves! Don't Buy From the Jews"
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Aryan Racial Declaration by German Citizen
2016.1.60
Typed document, ‘Erklarung’ underlined at top center; signatures and dates handwritten at bottom half with red handstamp on left
Information Provided by Michael D. Bulmash: This declaration, given by Mr. Claus Rass, just six months after Hitler becomes chancellor of Germany, states that there are no known circumstances which would give reason to believe that “I am not Aryan or that my parents or grandparents were members of the Jewish religion. I am aware that I will be punished in the event that my given declaration is not true.”